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Get to Know Your Neurotransmitters (and how to get them working for you)

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So many folks talk about neurotransmitters on a regular basis.  So today, we’re going to explain what they are and what they do.

Let’s break down the word “neurotransmitter.”

neuro= relating to nerves or the nervous system

transmitter= equipment used to generate and transmit electromagnetic waves carrying messages or signals, especially those of radio or television

Seems simple enough right?  Well let’s dive into the details then.

What is a Neuron?

A neuron, or nerve cell, is the fundamental structural and functional unit of the nervous system.

Every neuron consists of three main components: the cell body (soma), axon, and dendrites.  Dendrites are branch-like projections off the soma that receive incoming signals from other neurons or sensory receptors.  Axons are the long, slim projections that carry electrical impulses away from the cell body and transmit them to other neurons, muscles, or glands.  It is thought that neurons communicate through electrochemical signals, where certain chemicals in the body, known as ions, carry an electrical charge. These ions move across the neuron’s cell membrane, influencing its electrical charge.

In a resting state, the soma is negatively charged relative to its external environment (about -70 millivolts, mV).  When it is stimulated by some external event (like stubbing your toe, or hearing your name), it causes neurons to take in positive ions, leading to an increase in its positive charge.  Once the neuron surpasses a specific threshold, typically around -55mV, an action potential occurs, prompting the neuron to “fire.”   This happens incredibly quickly, over the course of about 1 millisecond.  This action potential travels down the axon until it reaches the axon terminal.

At the end of a neuron’s axon electrical signals transform into chemical signals, traversing the synapse—a narrow gap between neurons.  These chemical messengers are known as neurotransmitters.  Neurotransmitters cross the synapse and can bind to receptors located on the dendrites of adjacent neurons, potentially initiating another action potential.

Neurotransmitters are simply chemical substances that are released at the end of a nerve fiber by the arrival of a nerve impulse.  They diffuse across the synapse or junction, causing the transfer of the impulse to another nerve fiber, a muscle fiber, or some other structure.

Neurons are a special type of electrically excitable cell.  This is one reason why mineral imbalances and constant exposure to nnEMFs harm them.  They are designed to send electrochemical signals to other cells or release neurotransmitters.  They don’t just communicate through electrical signals or chemicals (like neurotransmitters and transneuronal transported proteins, or TNTPs).

There is a 20-40 nm gap between any two neurons.  Once a signal is received, the postsynaptic dendrite transforms an electrical signal into a chemical form through neurotransmitter release.  When the electrical signal reaches the presynaptic terminal, it causes the neuron to release chemical neurotransmitters that will either excite or inhibit the next neuron from firing its own action potential.  

A Primer

Before jumping into this, it is important to know that too much or too little of any neurotransmitter can be bad.  Like most things, it’s about balance.

We’re also going to be going over some of the “main” neurotransmitters today.  The reason for this is because there’s over 100 of them, and I’d be lying if I told you that I know what all of them do because I’m pretty sure no one does.  

Neurotransmitters are involved in many different neural circuits in the central and peripheral nervous system (CNS & PNS, respectively).  You can also find neurotransmitters in the autonomic nervous system (ANS- consisting of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems) and in the enteric neural circuits in the gut.

So with that being said, we’ll be going over several of the “main” ones today.

Generally speaking, neurotransmitters fall into one of three categories: excitatory, inhibitory, and modulatory.  If there are imbalances, it can lead to experiencing certain symptoms.  For example, when you lose the balance of an excitatory neurotransmitter, you may experience anxiety. 

Excitatory neurotransmitters promote the generation of an action potential, while inhibitory neurotransmitters prevent it.   To take this a step further, a neurotransmitter can be either excitatory or inhibitory depending on the receptor it binds to.

Dopamine: Focuses your attention, making you feel excited and engaged 

Epinephrine: Boosts energy during stress response

Norepinephrine: Boosts your energy and makes you feel more alert 

Glutamate: main excitatory neurotransmitter

GABA: Main inhibitory neurotransmitter

Acetylcholine: cognitive functions like memory and learning

Histamine: Allergic reactions, immune responses, and injury 

Oxytocin: Promotes feelings of love, trust, and empathy for others 

Serotonin: Elicits feelings of calm, contentment, and satisfaction 

Endorphins and anandamide: Induce relaxation by relieving feelings of pain and stress

All neurotransmitters are made from amino acids, and all macronutrients are necessary for their proper function.  The exception to this is acetylcholine, which is made by either dietary or recycled choline and acetyl groups.

Certain neurotoxins like caffeine, nicotine, and alcohol, as well as mineral depletion and vitamin depletion, are all going to impact neurotransmitter production in one way or another.

Dopamine

Well-known for the role it plays in fueling addiction, dopamine also helps regulate cognitive functions, emotional responses, and physical reactions. 

Dopamine plays a role in regulating motor control, reinforcing specific behaviors through reward, motivating individuals, facilitating learning, promoting flexible thinking (in contrast to serotonin, which is associated with “order-based” models of thinking), enhancing concentration, and influencing sleep. This is why increasing activity in certain dopamine receptors, such as through substances like creatine later in the day, can result in insomnia for many individuals.

Dopamine is often associated with the brain’s reward system. It plays a crucial role in motivation, reinforcement, and the experience of pleasure.  It is now considered more important to the “work up to the reward” more so than the reward itself, as previously thought. 

Dopamine is involved in the regulation of voluntary movement. Dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra play a key role in this function.

Dopamine released from the hypothalamus inhibits the secretion of prolactin from the pituitary gland. This regulatory function is important for normal reproductive processes.

Dopamine is implicated in mood regulation and emotional responses. Imbalances in dopamine levels have been linked to various psychiatric conditions, including schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.

Dopamine is most famously known for its role in addiction.  Drugs such as cocaine and amphetamines can affect dopamine levels, contributing to the reinforcing effects of these substances.

Dopamine is synthesized from the amino acid tyrosine through a series of enzymatic reactions, with the rate-limiting step involving the enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase.   Tyrosine is also used to create the other catecholamines, norepinephrine and epinephrine.  All three are similar in that they are utilized in the stress response pathways.  This is done through transferring methyl groups, so making sure you have adequate B vitamins is key- as they are the substrates that donate methyl groups.  

The difference between dopamine and the other catecholamines is that they are primarily associated with the frontal lobe.

Deficient dopamine levels produce numerous symptoms, including: 

On the other hand, excessive dopamine levels contribute to 

Dopamine dysregulation is associated with mental health conditions such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorders, and obsessive-compulsive disorders. Therefore, healthcare professionals suggest seeking medical advice before attempting to manipulate the levels of dopamine in your system.

Those who are low in dopamine tend to crave sweets to increase voltage to the brain reward center, but it never actually replaces the lost power, leading to a cycle of poor eating habits.  They also tend to have strong cravings for caffeine.  

Addictions of all kinds are linked to dopamine imbalances.  Interestingly, those with low dopamine tend to have low pregnenolone, which is the precursor to many hormones, like stress and sex hormones.  

Things that can throw dopamine out of balance in nutrient deficiencies in zinc, B vitamins responsible in the methylation cycle (mainly B2, B3, B6, B9, B12) vitamin C, vitamin K, vitamin D (sunlight), vitamin E, and fatty acids or amino acids.  Chronically high epinephrine can lead to a dopamine deficiency quickly, and excess serotonin can also deplete it.

So can having no hobbies, leading a sedentary lifestyle, having too much digital stimulation, a dysregulated circadian rhythm, social isolation, insulin resistance, and watching porn.

Norepinephrine

The major difference between norepinephrine (also called noradrenaline) and epinephrine is that norepinephrine tends to be released for longer periods of time.  Epinephrine is released and taken up in shorter bursts.  

Norepinephrine is a neurotransmitter in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).  In the CNS, it acts as a neuromodulator involved in various cognitive functions, attention, and arousal.  In the PNS, it functions as a neurotransmitter released by sympathetic nerves, initiating the “fight or flight” response.  It helps regulate your biorhythms, maintains your organs, and helps protect you from danger.

Norepinephrine is involved in promoting wakefulness, alertness, and maintaining attention. It plays a role in the sleep-wake cycle and can contribute to attention disorders when dysregulated.

Norepinephrine can increase both heart rate and the force of heart contraction, which raises blood pressure.  

Deficient norepinephrine levels contribute to the depressive phase of bipolar disorders, attention deficit disorders, chronic fatigue, and low blood pressure.  On the other hand, chronically elevated norepinephrine levels contribute to the manic phase of bipolar disorders, chronic stress, and anxiety disorders. 

The most effective way to keep your norepinephrine levels in balance is to manage your mental and physical health and reduce your stress levels.

Epinephrine

Epinephrine (also called adrenaline) is mainly produced by the adrenal medulla, which is responsible for producing the catecholamines.  

Given the name, you might imagine that it plays a role in the body’s “fight or flight” (or sympathetic) response.  You would be correct!  It is released into the bloodstream and acts on various organs to prepare the body for a rapid response.

When the body perceives a threat, the release of epinephrine triggers several physiological changes, including increased heart rate, dilation of the airways, and redirection of blood flow to vital organs like the heart and muscles.  In the medical model, you will see epinephrine used in emergencies such as anaphylaxis to counteract severe allergic reactions, in cardiac arrest to stimulate the heart, and in certain respiratory conditions to open the airways.

While it is mostly known for its impacts on the cardiovascular system and metabolism, epinephrine also influences mood, attention, and memory, contributing to the overall cognitive and emotional response to stress.

In the cardiovascular system, epinephrine acts on the heart by increasing the rate and force of contractions, leading to an elevated heart rate. It also causes blood vessels to constrict in some areas (like the digestive organs) while dilating in others (muscles, lungs), optimizing blood flow to tissues that need it most during a stress response.  This is why eating food while you’re stressed impairs digestion, and you may experience reflux, indigestion, and everything in between.

Epinephrine is helpful for the respiratory system because it relaxes the airway muscles, facilitating more airflow.  More airflow helps provide more oxygen to tissues that need it during physical activity.

Epinephrine also triggers the release of glucose from the liver into the bloodstream, which provides muscles with an immediate energy source.  It also enhances the breakdown of glycogen into glucose within skeletal muscles.  Similarly, it also increases the rate of lipolysis, or the breakdown of stored fats into free fatty acids for energy during times of stress.  

What’s important to note here is the threat doesn’t need to be real, it just needs to be perceived as such.  This can include not eating for long stretches of time, social isolation, etc.  

It is also interesting to note that epinephrine has similar characteristics to dopamine in the short term, which may explain why so many people are “addicted” to stress.

So there’s a lot going on with epinephrine.  Needless to say there’s a few things you might want to consider to main balanced levels.

First is blood sugar stability.  Since epinephrine triggers the release of glucose into the bloodstream to be used for energy.  This is an intelligent design at its best.  Problem is, when you’re chronically stressed, it can raise your blood sugar independent of food intake and cause issues with the pancreas.

I think it’s important to learn your body cues and listen to them.   I would also not skip dinner.  This doesn’t mean that you should eat late at night, just don’t go to bed on an empty stomach.  If that is the case, your body may release adrenaline to release glucose from glycogen to keep your organs working throughout the night, since that is when you detox and repair (mostly).  

Not having glycogen available = lots of stress.

Certain nutrients like zinc, chromium, and magnesium are crucial for health epinephrine levels.  Also stimulants like caffeine and depressants like alcohol are going to stress your HPA axis.

Glutamate

Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the body, meaning it enhances the transmission of signals between nerve cells (neurons) in the brain.  Of all the neurotransmitters, this one may be considered the “gas pedal.”  

Glutamate is also incredibly important for neuroplasticity, learning, and memory.  Glutamate can stimulate the vagus nerve, and thus influence gut motility.  It can also regulate glutathione production, bone formation, and the repair of muscle tissue.  

In Modern society, too much glutamate is more of an issue than too little.  Excessive release or impaired regulation of glutamate can lead to excitotoxicity.  Excitotoxicity is associated with neuronal damage and cell death, contributing to various neurological disorders, including stroke, neurodegenerative diseases, and certain psychiatric conditions.

You are probably familiar with the food additive monosodium glutamate (MSG).  This is detrimental for Modern Humans because free-form glutamate (or glutamate not bound to other amino acids, can be absorbed by the body very quickly.  

This binding mechanism serves as a preventive measure against potential toxicity caused by excessive consumption of foods rich in glutamate. The binding facilitates excretion, reducing the risk of overexposure.

Excess glutamate can cause a few health problems like…

So one thing you’d definitely want to do is avoid foods that are high in this free-form glutamate, like…

You may also want to consider avoiding the daily usage of stimulants like caffeine.  Using stimulants daily or subjecting our bodies to stress hormones will cause issues.  Fasting for prolonged periods of time can do this for some as well and should be monitored from person to person. 

Foods rich in B6 and magnesium are also fantastic for glutamate regulation because these two nutrients are cofactors for many reactions involving glutamate.

GABA

If glutamate is the gas pedal of neurotransmitters, then GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) should be considered the brakes.  GABA is Nature’s “off” button.

GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain. Its main function is to reduce the activity of neurons and dampen nerve signals. This inhibitory action helps maintain a balance in neural activity and prevents excessive excitability.  

GABA is synthesized from glutamate in the brain and spinal cord since it cannot cross the blood-brain barrier.  You need B6 to help synthesize GABA.  You may hear that vegans or plant-based eaters don’t get enough B6.  This is an uninformed take.  If you eat a variety of real foods and avoid the fake foods that will do nothing for your health OR the environment, you don’t have anything to worry about.   Green leafy vegetables, bananas, avocados, wheat germ, sweet potatoes, chickpeas, walnuts, blackstrap molasses, cantaloupe, cabbage, green peppers, carrots, brown rice, honey, prunes, hazelnuts (filberts), potatoes, and sunflower seeds are all viable sources of B6.

GABAergic signaling is involved in regulating various processes in the central nervous system, including anxiety levels, stress response, muscle tone, and sleep. GABA helps to maintain a balance between excitatory and inhibitory signals, contributing to overall neural stability.

GABA also plays an important role in promoting sleep by reducing brain activity.  GABAergic activity is associated with sedative and anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) effects.  To take it to the extreme, medications that enhance GABAergic signaling, such as benzodiazepines, are commonly prescribed for their calming and anti-anxiety properties.

Without healthy levels of GABA, you may experience symptoms like 

Like glutamate, it would be wise to make sure you are getting sufficient amounts of vitamin B6 and magnesium, since both of these are involved as cofactors in the glutamine – glutamate -GABA cycle.  

You will also want to make sure that you have your blood sugar under control and your pancreas is healthy.  Why?  The beta cells in the pancreas, the ones responsible for producing insulin, also produce GABA!  

Chronic stress can also be an issue for balancing GABA because glucocorticoid hormones, like cortisol are constantly being released in a stressed state.  GABA counteracts this but can only keep up to a certain extent.  If the chronic stress load is…chronically high, you will reach your threshold sooner than later.  In a similar vein, you certainly do not want to be regularly consuming stimulants for the same reason.

You also want to make sure your digestion is on point because you need certain amino acids like taurine and glycine to build GABA.  Almost no one in America has a protein intake problem, and there are no current cases of exclusive plant-eaters who are protein-deficient that eat enough food, so that’s a myth that needs to die.  

However, what is an issue is protein breakdown and digestion.  If you can’t break down proteins into amino acids or absorb them, that CAN be a big problem.  So make sure that you are keeping your digestive tract running on full cylinders- a tough task in the Modern Day, but it must be done!

You may also want to focus on nutrients that support or are involved in GABA synthesis, like sunlight, thiamine (vitamin B1), vitamin C, vitamin A, copper, zinc, magnesium, taurine and vitamin E.

Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is a cholinergic neurotransmitter, meaning it is synthesized in nerve terminals from choline and acetyl coenzyme A through the action of the enzyme choline acetyltransferase (ChAT).  Once acetylcholine is created, it is stored in presynaptic vesicles, ready for release when the time is right.  

Acetylcholine is involved in cognitive functions like memory and learning.  Degenerating cholinergic neurons (neurons that contain acetylcholine) are common in people struggling with symptoms of memory loss, cognitive decline, or Alzheimer’s disease.  

It is an excitatory neurotransmitter and is responsible for many functions of the PNS (and CNS) such as regulating our heart rate, gut motility, blood pressure, immune system function, and libido, along with cognition.  In fact, it is the primary neurotransmitter in the PNS, but also plays a role in your processing speed.  In other words, those who have a lot of acetylcholine in the brain tend to be sharp mentally.    

Acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter for the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system.  This means it helps slow heart rate, stimulate digestive processes, and promote relaxation.

It is thought to be involved in the initiation of muscle contraction and coordination of movement.  This happens when acetylcholine is released at the neuromuscular junction, facilitating muscle contraction.  

Acetylcholine is implicated in the regulation of sleep and wakefulness.  Changes in acetylcholine levels are associated with different stages of the sleep cycle.

Acetylcholine is also linked to sex hormone production.  When sex hormones are low, so is acetylcholine.  Pregnenolone, a precursor to your sex hormones, may also be low in this scenario.  Blood sugar imbalances, adrenal fatigue, and high stress environments ALL are going to increase cortisol at the expense of sex hormone production, which over time can also mean low acetylcholine.  

Some symptoms of imbalanced acetylcholine include decreased visual or verbal memory, more memory lapses in general, decreased creativity, diminished comprehension, difficulty calculating numbers, difficulty recognizing objects, shapes, and faces, excessive urination, and slower mental response.  Being a “worry wart” is another presentation of acetylcholine deficiency.

It is also important to note that there are two major types of acetylcholine receptors.  They are muscarinic and nicotinic.  This is partially why folks who are low in acetylcholine may use or get addicted to nicotine since nicotine increases the density of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors.  Obviously, I’m not endorsing using nicotine products.  You can get the same benefits through much safer means and not have to deal with the downsides of long-term nicotine use.

Choline is an essential nutrient involved in memory, mood, muscle control, and other brain and nervous system functions.  But don’t get it twisted.  Eggs, meat, and other animal products are not the only sources of, nor the most healthful sources of, choline.  


Rather, consuming dietary choline from animal products may contribute to adverse health outcomes, according to the New England Journal of Medicine.   They found a relationship between egg consumption and elevated TMAO, a byproduct of dietary choline that might raise the risk of heart attack, stroke, and mortality.  So too much choline might not be great either.

(Organic) soybeans have more choline than beef and chicken, and potatoes, mushrooms.  Soy isn’t always the best option though.  Most beans have more choline than dairy products or tuna.

Beyond choline, you need ALL macronutrients for neurotransmitters to function properly- so tell that to the “low carb” or “low fat” crowd.

You get acetyl-CoA from either the beta oxidation of fatty acids (FA metabolism) or from glycolysis (fructose and glucose metabolism).  They both end with acetyl-CoA as the final product (mentioned in last week’s blog).

When cortisol levels rise, the deficiency in acetylcholine (ACh) worsens, leading to a more pronounced cognitive decline.  Chronically high cortisol further damages the gut lining, increasing its permeability to inflammation and exacerbating the deficits in neurotransmitters over time. This creates a significant positive feedback loop.  Additionally, in the United States, the Standard American Diet (SAD) contributes to an earlier onset of perimenopause, due to simultaneous decline in sex steroid hormones resulting from pregnenolone steal.

Ginger tea can be a great tool to help balance acetylcholine and serotonin. There are also certain herbs that are fantastic for helping prevent the breakdown of acetylcholine like ginkgo biloba, bacopa, and gotu kola.  If you’re looking for the occasional mental boost, these are better options.    

Histamine

Histamine is one of the most talked-about neurotransmitters today, especially as it pertains to our gut, allergies, sleep-wake cycle, certain hormones, appetite, the function of our pituitary gland and the overall function of our metabolism.

Histamine is synthesized from the amino acid histidine through the action of the enzyme histidine decarboxylase.

Once synthesized, histamine is stored in granules within mast cells and basophils, which are types of immune cells.  It is also found in certain neurons in the central nervous system.

Histamine is released in response to many different stimuli including allergic reactions, immune responses, and injury.  It is released from mast cells, basophils, and histaminergic neurons.  Histamine is a key mediator of allergic reactions. When an allergen triggers an immune response, mast cells release histamine, leading to symptoms such as itching, redness, and swelling.

Histamine is also involved in the inflammatory response.  It acts as a signaling molecule to bring more immune cells to the site of injury.

Abnormal histamine levels or excessive release can contribute to various conditions, including allergic disorders, asthma, and certain gastrointestinal disorders.

Symptoms of histamine intolerance can vary widely but may include the following:

Histamine does what it does by binding to four main kinds of receptors H1, H2, H3, and H4 receptors.

H1 receptors are associated with allergic responses, vasodilation (widening of blood vessels), increased vascular permeability, and smooth muscle contraction.  H1 receptors also play a role in the sleep/wake cycle.  

H2 receptors are primarily found in the stomach lining and are associated with the regulation of gastric acid secretion.  A certain class of medications, called H2 antagonists (or H2 blockers), are commonly used to “treat” gastroesophageal reflux (GERD) or stomach ulcers.  

H3 receptors are primarily found in the central nervous system and act as autoreceptors, regulating the release of histamine itself.  They also modulate the release of other neurotransmitters, like dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine in the CNS.

H4 receptors are mainly expressed in immune cells and play a role in immune responses and inflammation.

As with all the other neurotransmitters, we are striving for a balance.  Too high or too low is a problem.  

If you are sensitive to histamine, chances are there is an underlying gut problem that needs to be addressed.  It may be helpful to avoid some of these foods that are high in histamine for a short period of time.  Some of these (but certainly not all like whole fruits, nuts, etc.), you might want to avoid altogether going forward:

Generally, anything preserved, aged, cured, or fermented is going to have a greater amount of histamines.  

Certain enzyme deficiencies can be a problem as well.  Enzymes that break down histamines like diamine oxidase (DAO) and histamine N-methyltransferase (HNMT) enzymes are crucial as well.  So you want to make sure you have healthy food sources of zinc, C, B6, B12, and B9 since these are all cofactors.

People with gastrointestinal disorders, such as inflammatory bowel disease, leaky gut syndrome, or small intestinal bacterial overgrowth (SIBO), may exhibit diminished activity of DAO and elevated levels of histamine, resulting in the development of histamine intolerance.  This is also something to be mindful of if you’ve had rounds of antibiotics.

Oxytocin 

Oxytocin, commonly known as the “love hormone,” oxytocin plays a key role in various emotional, social, and cognitive processes, such as increasing sexual arousal and climax (for men and women), promoting positive communication, and improving social memory.  It is produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland.

One of the primary functions of oxytocin is to stimulate uterine contractions during childbirth.  It is crucial for initiating and progressing labor by promoting uterine contractions.

Oxytocin is also crucial for the milk ejection reflex, or let-down reflex, during breastfeeding.  This stimulates the contraction of mammary glands to release milk.

As I previously mentioned, oxytocin is the “bonding hormone” because it is associated with social bonding and affectionate behaviors. It is released in response to positive social interactions, such as hugging, kissing, and other forms of physical touch.

Oxytocin also has stress-reducing properties and can help instill a sense of calm.  It is also released in both men and women during sexual arousal and orgasm- and is thought to contribute to the bonding between partners.  

Ongoing research suggests that dysregulation of oxytocin in the brain can contribute to envy, aggression, and fear, as well as neuropsychiatric conditions such as autism, schizophrenia, and eating disorders.

There are many things that can inhibit the release of oxytocin, including certain medications- particularly ones that affect the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, a lack of physical contact, pain, chronic stress, and negative social interactions.

Serotonin

Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) is a monoamine just like dopamine and noradrenaline.  

Monoamines originate from aromatic amino acids, including phenylalanine, histidine, tyrosine, and tryptophan. They can be classified into indoleamines, derived from tryptophan, and catecholamines, derived from phenylalanine and tyrosine (specifically in the brain), through a process involving decarboxylation, which entails the removal of one carbon.

It is synthesized from the amino acid tryptophan (and thus is an indoleamine) through a series of enzymatic reactions. The rate-limiting step in serotonin synthesis involves the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase.  

Now, you might think that eating tryptophan-rich foods like turkey and chicken are the answer here!  Not so fast!

Yes- you can find tryptophan in fish, poultry, and dairy products, but the consumption of these foods does not necessarily result in increased serotonin levels.  This is because other foods compete with tryptophan for absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.  

Believe it or not, consuming carbohydrates elevates serotonin levels in the body more rapidly than a protein-rich diet does.  This is because of the stimulation of insulin release by carbohydrates, leading to an insulin spike that favors the absorption of tryptophan in the gut over other amino acids.  This has been picked up in studies done by Harvard and MIT.  Yet again, another reason why ignoring carbohydrates or going low-carbohydrate is just a foolish idea.   This is partially why so many folks who go low-carbohydrate experience the “keto flu.”  It is usually due to low serotonin levels.


Low serotonin levels can be responsible for cravings, binging, and initial weight gain while going on a “diet.”

The synthesis of serotonin starts from the amino acid tryptophan through a series of enzymatic reactions. The rate-limiting step in serotonin synthesis involves the enzyme tryptophan hydroxylase.

A significant portion of the body’s serotonin is found in the gastrointestinal tract, where it regulates bowel movements and contributes to the enteric nervous system.  In fact, 95% of the body’s serotonin is manufactured in the gut.  Roughly 60% is stored in the gut and the rest is in the pineal gland in the brain.  Gut stores are used when brain stores are low.  

While it primarily stabilizes your mood and promotes happy feelings, serotonin also aids in healing and restful sleep.  They can act as both excitatory and inhibitory neurons.

Serotonin is involved in the regulation of appetite and food intake. Changes in serotonin levels can influence feelings of satiety and hunger.

Serotonin is released from platelets during blood clotting, contributing to vasoconstriction and reducing blood flow.

Serotonin is associated with feelings of well-being and happiness. It is a key player in the complex interplay of neurotransmitters that contribute to emotional states.

Deficient serotonin levels contribute to numerous psychological, cognitive, and physiological issues, such as depression, aggression, obsessive-compulsive disorders, poor memory, weight gain, fatigue, and an overactive libido. On the other hand, excessive serotonin levels are detrimental to your health, contributing to digestive problems, involuntary muscle reactions, osteoporosis, and an underactive libido. 

Things like…

…can all lead to imbalances with serotonin.

You can increase your serotonin levels by exercising, meditating, and undergoing light therapy. However, excessive serotonin levels require immediate medical treatment.

Since serotonin is created from tryptophan, it would obviously be important to make sure you’re getting some tryptophan from your food.  The best plant sources include leafy greens, sunflower seeds, watercress, soybeans, pumpkin seeds, mushrooms, broccoli, and peas.  Yes, meats such as turkey also contain the amino acid, but the body can have a difficult time converting it to serotonin.

Endorphins

Endorphins are neurotransmitters primarily produced in the brain and nervous system.  The term “endorphin” comes from the term “endogenous morphine,” as these neurotransmitters are chemically similar to the opioids found in opium.  Endorphins play a variety of roles in many physiological processes, but most are related to pain modulation and feelings of pleasure.

Some of the major ones include…

  1. Beta endorphins
  2. Enkephalins
  3. Dynorphins
  4. Endomorphins
Beta-Endorphins

Beta-endorphins primarily act as analgesics, reducing the perception of pain.  They bind to opioid receptors in the brain, which is why they block pain signals and produce feelings of euphoria or well-being.  Beta-endorphin levels also tend to rise in response to stress, which is partially why you feel good after a long workout.  

When we are exposed to sunlight, the body produces more beta-endorphins.  People who work at night or have jobs that keep them in front of artificial lights at night (musicians and party goers are great examples), tend to be more likely to use and get addicted to street drugs.  In other words, Nature designed you to be addicted to sunlight.

Enkephalins

Enkephalins also act as pain relievers by attaching to opioid receptors.  They also contribute to emotional well-being and mood-regulation.

Dynorphins

Dynorphins are involved in pain reception and play a role as an analgesic and the body’s stress response.  They have a high affinity for attaching to kappa opioid receptors.  They can also influence mood and behavior.

Endomorphins

Endomorphins bind to mu opioid receptors and are thought to play a role in pain relief.  They also seem to have neuroprotective benefits, contributing to the overall health of the nervous system.

Since the main job of endorphins is to relieve physical pain and feelings of anxiety, deficient endorphin levels heighten your sensitivity to pain.  Factors that contribute to endorphin deficiency include anxiety, depression, lack of sleep, and substance abuse. 

You can increase your endorphin levels by laughing, getting sunlight, exercising, engaging in creative activities, and undertaking acupuncture treatment.

Anandamide

Anandamide is one of the two main endocannabinoids, meaning the body makes this cannabinoid on its own.  It is part of the endocannabinoid system, which consists of cannabinoid receptors, endocannabinoid, and their metabolic enzymes.

Anandamide was named after the Sanskrit word “ananda,” which means bliss or joy, due to its association with mood enhancement.  It also helps to regulate memory, appetite, pain relief, and sleeping patterns.  Anandamide works by binding THC receptors in the brain (THC is the main psychoactive compound in marijuana). 

Anadamide specifically is known for binding to cannabinoid receptors in the brain called CB1 receptors, which influence mood and emotion, contributing to sensations of happiness and well-being.

Anandamide is involved in the modulation of pain perception, affecting the transmission of pain signals in the nervous system.  It also influences the desire for food and pleasure associated with eating, mood, cognition, and sleep regulation.  

Deficient anandamide levels impede your ability to cope with stress, thus contributing to increased levels of fear, anxiety, and depression. You can increase your anandamide levels by eating pure chocolate or black truffles, or by taking (legal) CBD supplements (I honestly am not a fan of taking anything your body naturally makes on its own long-term).

When working together, these neurotransmitters produce a potent mix of vibrant health, incredible sleep, boundless energy, and enhance overall well-being.

Factors that Influence Neurotransmitter Formation

  1.  Chronic High Stress/Cortisol

Elevated cortisol levels, especially due to factors like overtraining and obesity, deplete neurotransmitters and increase their turnover.

  1. Poor Nutrition

This includes drastic limitations on certain macronutrients.  Poor food choices can significantly impact brain chemistry within three weeks.

  1. Leaky Gut

A major contributor to neurotransmitter loss and deficiency, as it alters absorption and causes inflammation at the brain level.  If intake is not an issue, then search to see if you’re having issues absorbing certain nutrients, particularly amino acids.  Many medications can cause problems with this, the most common of which being reflux medications, antibiotics, and birth control.  Eating while stressed, driving, on the move, or in a bad mood can also be problematic because stomach acid production is slowed when the sympathetic nervous system is activated.  This impairs protein and amino acid digestion specifically.

For example, leaky gut can lead to depletions of the amino acids glutamate, glycine, arginine, and ornithine.

  1. Poor Sleep/ Circadian Rhythms

Perhaps unsurprisingly, sleep is another main contributor to neurotransmitter imbalance.  This can be due to poor light environment, exposure to artificial lights at night, night shift work, or things many Modern Humans partake in like daily caffeine and alcohol use.  These will all negatively impact your neurotransmitters to some degree.

An example of this may be interleukin 6 (IL-6).  Abnormal sleep patterns generate more IL-6.  IL-6 helps mediate the immune response and enhance B cell function and production.  IL-6 has synergistic effects with IL-1 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-alpha).  

The problem comes when there is too much.  High blood levels of IL-6 are associated with shorter survival times for those with metastatic breast cancer, prostate cancer, kidney cancer, and leukemia.  Continued secretion of IL-6 stimulates the migration of breast cancer cells.  Additionally, chronically high levels of circulating VEGF encourage the siphoning of blood to cancer cells, promoting tumor growth.

IL-6 also alters the conversion of serotonin to melatonin, and depletes DHEA, particularly in individuals with sleep disturbances.  DHEA is produced in the adrenal glands primarily and is a precursor to your sex hormones.

  1. Medications

Certain medications, like weight-loss drugs, stimulants, and recreational drugs like caffeine, alcohol and marijuana will deplete neurotransmitters with time.  

  1. Hormone Imbalances

As we have discussed already, hormone imbalances will significantly impact neurotransmitter production.  This goes for ANY hormone.  From insulin to melatonin growth hormone deficiency, estrogen shifts, DHEA and pregnenolone deficits, and progesterone variations can all affect neurotransmitter levels.

  1. Neurotoxins

Exposure to heavy metals, pesticides, BPA, cleaning solvents, ecstasy, nicotine, alcohol, and MSG can lead to neurotransmitter depletion.

  1. The Brain

While it was thought for a long time that once we reach a certain age, the brain stops growing and we simply start to deteriorate.

Turns out, that isn’t true at all!  With the discovery of neuroplasticity, we can counteract the loss of neurons over time.  If you provide the brain with the elements it needs, we can trigger certain genes to retool the brain during sleep through the process of autophagy.

Autophagy is the process by which a healthy brain can better adapt to its current environment- this is a fundamental aspect of epigenetics.

Through the hologram model, we now know that if one part of the brain is damaged, another part of the brain can assume some of its functions if provided with the appropriate tools. Consistent activation of specific neural pathways enhances their efficiency over time, constituting the basis of learning.  

During sleep, we solidify these pathways.  This is also why a lack of sleep not only hampers learning but also negatively impacts metabolism and increases the likelihood of mental illness.

The brain is always adapting, and can become more resilient in its current environment, given the tools to do so.   The Modern pandemic of Alzheimer’s and other neurodegenerative disorders is NOT normal.  Aging individuals can potentially achieve a higher level of cognitive function by auditing and improving their environment, light exposure, nutrition, movement patterns, relationships, breathing, and sleep seriously.  

Sometimes testing can be helpful here to gauge brain function and sleep.  For example, those who sleep poorly tend to have low levels of DHEA-S in their blood or saliva, correlating with elevated IL-6 levels in the cerebrospinal fluid and blood.  This is why addressing some of the weak spots above can be so critical for improvement.

Wrapping Up

As you can see, neurotransmitters play an incredibly important role in your health.  There are many Modern conveniences that can inhibit our ability to keep them all functioning well.  It has been a running theme over the past 125 years, but especially in the past 40, how technology advances, while amazing and helpful in many ways, are clearly leading to the degradation of the Modern Human’s health.

This happens at all levels in mainstream medicine and lobbyists for Big Pharma, Big Ag, and Big Tech.  You will not see the studies to refute the use of GMO crops, 5G, and they will continue to bang the drum of random control trials because they all suit the status quo.  If you play in the centralized world, you get centralized answers (or non-answers).

The way out is to realize YOU are the solution to this problem and breaking out of this *matrix* can only be done on the individual level.  For true healing and regeneration to take place, you will have to go to a place very few are willing to go because it IS inconvenient.  But you are not just anyone.  If you want to learn a little more, I suggest starting with the Your Body Is Amazing Series here.  This is a solid foundation upon which to start.

Your body is amazing.  It only knows healing.  It is our job to learn how it is done.

Until next week!

Want More?

Whenever you’re ready, there are two ways I can help you:

  1. I’m excited to announce the launch of my new book: How to Get World Class Sleep!  If you’ve struggled with insomnia, have trouble falling asleep, or wake up feeling sluggish, then this is for you!  Fall Asleep Faster. Recover More Quickly.  Wake Up Refreshed!  Find it here!
  1. I have a BRAND NEW 10-minute video to show you how to Transform Your Life and Naturally Reverse High Blood Pressure… FOR FREE!  You can check it out here!  I hope to see you there!
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